Friday, March 8, 2019
Attachment â⬠Psychology Essay
DevelopmentalPsychologyEarly favor equal Development auxiliary shackle An activated puzzle in the midst of two people. It is a bipartite deal that endures over measure. It leads to certain demeanours such(prenominal) as clinging and proximity- fascinateking andserves the hearty function of protect the babe. Primary fixing figureThe person who has framinged the closest bond with a child, exhibit by the intensity of the descent. Usuallythe biological m otherwise, but other people set up fulfil the parting. education theoryA gathering of b visitations which exempt doings in termsof learning sort of than whatsoever infixed or higher ordertendencies. Mainly used by demeanourists who rather focustheir explanations purely on what behaviour they observe.Learning surmisalClassical Conditioning (Pavlov)Unconditi wizd Stimulus (US) solid foodUnconditioned repartee (UR) plea sureNeutral Stimulus (NS) the feederConditioned Stimulus (CS) food from a feederConditioned R esponse (CR) pleasure/ adhesionLearning possibleness Operant Conditioning Reinforcement When doing slightly function results in a pleasantconsequence, the behaviour is much likely to be getd. Punishment When doing something results in an soreconsequence, the behaviour is unlikely to be produced. Dollard and Miller (1950) explain bond paper victimization operant conditioning When an child is fed it reduces discomfort and maturations pleasure, this serves as a reward and is the primaryreinforcer. The person supplying the food is associatedwith avoiding discomfort and is the kickoff of reward whichbecomes the supplemental reinforcer. bond occursbecause the child seeks the person who supplies thereward.Evaluating the Learning Theory StrengthsIt can offer adequate explanations of how attachments strain. Behaviourists argue that since we argon made up of the same building blocks of stimulus/response environments experiments done on savages atomic reduce 18 safe to gener alize to human behaviour. flunk It may be oversight and responsiveness from the c argiver that is the primary reinforcer, not food. Learning theory is largely bagfuld on studies with non-human animals. Human behaviour may be analogous in many directions but learning theory does not aim higher order thinking and emotions that can influence behaviour. Har confused (1959) demonstrated that it is not food but the level of contact and comfort the infant receives that increases attachment levels. The use of young rhesus monkeys were used to demonstrate this. 60 babies were studied in Glasgow and imbed that attachment was higher to the person who was close to responsive and who interacted with them much (Schaffer and Emerson,1964).Cant explain the importance of sensitivity in attachment.Bowlbys accompaniment Theory (1969) ELEMENTS OF BOWLBYS ATTACHMENT THEORY fastener is adaptive and indispensable Bowlbys theory is an evolutionary theory because it sees attachment as a behavio ur that adds to its survival andultimately its reproductive value. Having attachmentcapabilities is an innate drive, similar to imprinting, that has long term benefits ensuring it stays close to its c argiver. minimise on the Theory of Evolution reconciling behaviours atomic number 18 behaviours that increase thelikelihood of survival and reproduction. Natural selection is the continuation of these adaptive traits indoors the animal to increase chances of survival. Sexual selection is the ability to reproduce, not just survive. Adaptive genes that lead to possessing traits to assist inreproduction increases sexual selection.Bowlbys accompaniment Theory spiritualist Period A biologically determined geological end of time during the second quarter of the first year is the most all-important(a) period in which attachments can be made. Once missed thus it is to a greater extent difficult for a child to draw and quarter attachments and demonstrate kind difficulties. C atomic number 18giving is adaptive Not but attachment but also caveatgiving is adaptively innate. Social releasers from the infant give signals to the make dogiver (smiling, crying, etc) to take business of it. Attachment is the innate system in babies and caregiving is the innate system in adults. Secure base Having a catch attachment provides a child with a repair base in which to explore the world from. It fosters independence, not dependence. Monotropy and hierarchy Infants contrive a number of different attachments but has one particular warp towards a very special one cal conduct the primary attachment, this is called monotropy. Even with secondary attachments, this hierarchy of attachments recognizes the importance of a primary attachment figure (PAF). The PAF is one that responds most irritablely to the childs brotherly releasers. Secondary attachments are important, without them, children tend to omit complaisant skills.Bowlbys Attachment Theory Internal working pat tern A mental model of the world that enables individuals to predict and control their environment. The inwroughtworking model based on attachment has severalconsequences In the short-term it gives the child insight into the caregivers behaviour and enables the child to influencethe caregivers behaviour so that a true partnership canbe create. In the long-term it acts as a template for all future relationships because it generates expectations somewhathow people be perk up. The persistency meditation The idea that deliriously absolute infants go on to beemotionally secure, trusting and socially confident adults.Evaluating Attachment Theory StrengthsLorenz (1952) supports that imprinting is innate as the goslings imprinted on the first thing they saw moving, which was Lorenz. look for shows that once the sharp period has passed and no attachments are produce, children display social difficulties with helpmates. If attachment and caregiving are an important biological functi on as Bowlby suggests then they would be pitch universally. Tronick et al (1992) studied an African tribe in congou tea and demonstrate despite tribal indebtedness for raising kids a PAF is present. This is also cause of monotropy.Schaffer and Emerson ensnare that the to a greater extent than right away a caregiver responded to a childs needs and the more interaction they had led to a stronger level of attachment. This interaction is important as it is not teeming to wee-wee something to cuddle but to actually be cuddled back builds a stronger attachment.The manganese longitudinal force field (2005) piece that continuity mingled with untimely attachment and after(prenominal) emotional/social behaviour. Infants classified as secure were later rated highest for social competence, less isolated, more empathetic and more popular.Evaluating Attachment Theory Weaknesses six-fold attachments, according to psychologists, are as equally important. in that location are no primary or secondaryattachments, all attachments are integrated into one singleworking model. withal, a review the search points to thehierarchical model as being predominant ( former and Glaser,2006).An alternative explanation to the continuity meditation exists, known as the temper hypothesis. This is the belief that children form secure attachments simply because they have a more easy temperament from birth, whereas more innately difficult children a more likely to form insecure attachments. The infants temperamental characteristics shapes a mothers level of responsiveness. Thomas and Chess (1977) determine infant personality typewrites as easy, difficult and slow-to-warm-up. Belsky and Rovine (1987) found a crosstie between physiological behaviours and later attachments types. The more calm and less sickish (aspects of temperament) an infant was the more likely they were to lift secure attachments.Types of Attachment The singular Situation (Ainsworth and Wittig, 1969)h ttp//www.youtube.com/watch?v=QTsewNrHUHUAim to see how infants behave under(a)(a) inhabitancys of stresswith the introduction of a stranger and the separation ofthe parent. This tests stranger concern and separationanxiety and also the infants willingness to explore with its secure base.Procedure a 99 question agency marked off into 16 squareswas used. The procedure consists of 8 episodesMEMORISE THEMData is collected by a assort of observers that recordedwhat the infant was doing every 15 seconds. Observer observe the type of behaviour and level of intensity on a subdue of 1-7.Types of Attachment The foreign Situation Findings Ainsworthcombined data from several studies to charter 106 middle-class infants observed.Similarities and differences were found in the waythe infants behaved. In terms of similarities, it was famed that episode 2 onwards exploratorybehaviour decreased spot crying change magnitude.Proximity-seeking and contact- main(prenominal)tainingincreased durin g separation and when strangerappeared. Finally, contact-resisting and proximityavoiding behaviours rarely occurred towards the caregiver preceding to separation.Types of Attachment The contradictory Situation FindingsAinsworth found differences in three main types of children. risky-avoidant this is a style of attachment characterising those children that tend to avoid social interaction and intimacy with others. Secure attachment this is a strong and contented attachment of an infant to his or her caregiver which develops as a result of sensitive responding by the caregiver to the infants needs.Insecure-resistant this is a style of ambivalent attachment characterisingchildren who two seek and reject intimacy and social interaction.Main and Solomon (1986) re-analysed the strange situation video tapes and created a fourth attachment typeInsecure-disorganised these infants lack a coherent and consistent strategy for dealing with the stress of separation.Secure% of infants(Ainswor th, 1978)% of infants (VanIjzendoorn et , 1999)InsecureavoidantInsecureresistantInsecuredisorganised66%22%12%XXX62%15%9%15%Evaluating Types of Attachment StrengthsAinsworths unlike Situation technique has accustomed psychologists a means to look and tuition attachment which can lead to new future findings. hindrance strategies have been developed to strengthen caregiving behaviour and attachments types. The Circle of Security vagabond (Cooper et al, 2005) which teaches caregivers to recognise signs of distress showed a decrease in unsoundnessed caregiving and an increase in secure attachment types.It has proven to be experimentally sensible as its construct validity has been demonstrated by other studies bread and butter the four types of attachments and its predictive validity has been demonstrated in correlations between precedent(predicate) attachment types and later behaviours. Its findings are also consistent which makes them reliable. Using interobserver reliablity methods, Ainsworth found almost perfect agreement at . 94 between the raters (1.0 is perfect). Weakness Or does it lack validity, because it is intended to measure the attachment type of an infant, precisely does it really simply measure the quality of a particular relationship? Main and Weston (1981) claim it is measuring one relationship instead of something innate within an individual. Evaluating Types of Attachment Effects of attachment types Bowlbys continuity hypothesis would predict that a childs behaviour later in liveness would be effected by specificattachment types they develop. Prior and Glaser (2006) found that in later childhood, if as infants they developed a secure attachment type, they wouldbe less emotionally dependent and possess moreinterpersonal harmony. Infants with the other three typeswould be more aggressive, disallow pull back in laterchildhood. It would also effect you in your adult wild-eyed lives as well. Hazen and Shaver (1987) conducted the Love Q uiz whichasked questions about early on experiences and latest loveexperiences and found that there were characteristicpatterns of later romantic behaviour associated with eachearly attachment type.Evaluating Types of Attachment Factors that influence attachment typeSensitivity Ainsworth developed the Maternal Sensitivity Scale to rate mothers behaviour such as sensitivity and insensitivity to infants signals. The scale found securelyattached infantObservedMothers bxInsecurelyattached infantAvoidant infantResistant infantmore sensitive,cooperatingUnresponsive tocrying less sociableMore rejecting andless attentiongivingPreoccupied withroutine activities when memory infantMaternal reflective functioning Some studies have shown low correlations between measures of sensitivity and strength of attachment. Slade et al (2005) found the ability to interpret what someone else is thinking or feeling may be more important.Temperament May play a role as previous look into indicates, but it is unclear. ethnic Variations in Attachment KNOW the definitions of civilization, culturalvariations and the difference betweenindividualistic and collectivistic glossinesss (pg.45) cross-cultural Similarities AinsworthsUganda study (1967) Tronick et al (1992) study on the African tribe inZaire Fox (1977) infants in Isreali kibbutz raised bynurses when tested in the Strange Situationappeared equally attached to both caregivers,except in the reunification behaviour where theyshowed greater attachment to their mothers.Cultural Variations in Attachment Cross-cultural Differences Grossman and Grossman (1991) found that German infants appear more insecurely attached rather than secure. This may be due to the different childrearing practices as German purification involves keeping some interpersonal distance from the parent and infant. Takahashi (1990) used the Strange Situation on a group of 60 middle-class infants in Japan and found similar rates of secure attachment. However, the infants showed no evidence of insecure-avoidant and high rates of insecureresistance (32%). Different childrearing practices can explain the difference for in Japan the infants are rarely ever separated from their parents which is why they would be more distressed than their American counterparts. Conclusions These studies suggest that the strongest attachments are still formed with their mothers and that there are differences in attachment that can be cogitate to differences in cultural attitudes. Meta-analysis study by Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988) examined over 2000 Strange Situation classification studies in 8 countries. They found the variation between countries and culture were small with secure attachment being the most viridity in all countries followed by insecure-avoidant except in Japan and Israel. Variations within cultures however were greater. In conclusion the findings appear to be similar to that found in the US and this supports the view that attachment i s an innate and biological process. besides data collected on different subcultures should not be utter to be typical of a particular culture.Criticisms of enquiry on CulturalVariations Culture biasRothbaum et al (2000) argued that attachment theory andresearch is not relevant to other countries because it is rooted in American culture. For example, the sensitivity hypothesis reflects western ideas of autonomy whereas in Japan sensitivity is about promoting dependence. The continuity hypothesis states thatsecure infant attachments create more competent adults, however, this competence is defined in terms of individuation. The secure base hypothesis in the west explains secure attached infants as independent and confident exploring whereas in Japan theypromote dependence and the concept of amae and so this canexplain why insecure-resistant behaviours are more typical.Rothbaum concludes that psychologists should produce a set of natal theories that are explanations of attachment t hat are rooted in individual cultures with a small group of universal principles (infant need for protection) but mostly with child care practices relating to cultural values.Rothbaum was challenged by Posada and Jacobs (2001) whichshows that attachment theory does apply to most cultures.Criticisms of look on CulturalVariations Criticisms of cross-cultural research Testsof procedures used may not be equally validin the country and may make the culture appearinferior or abnormal. This is an example of impose etic. This is when a research method isused in one culture even thought it was designed tobe used in another(prenominal) (intelligence tests or observations). The group that was tested may not berepresentative of the culture and yet researchersmight make generalisations about the whole cultureor even the whole country.Disruption of Attachment Effects of intervalSpitz and Wolf (1946) observed 100 children in an institution became severely dispirited after a few months.Skeels an d Dye (1939) found similar children scored turn down on intelligence tests.Bifulo et al (1992) found that oppose effects of going may occur later in life. When 249 women who had lost their mothers forwards they were 17 were studied, it was found that they were twice as likely to develop depressive/anxiety disorders later in life.Robertsons (1967-73) made films observing the effects of separation in childrenWhen precondition a high level of emotional care and similar structures to that of their home life, the children exhibited some signs of distress, however, slept well and did not reject their PAF when they were reunited. Some were even slow to part with the foster mother which is a sign of a sizable emotional bond.John, however, was in a nursery and not given such attention. He became withdrawn and gave up on proximity seeking bx. When he was reunited with his mother he rejected her for months and demonstrated outbursts of anger towards her.Disruption of Attachment Physical and Emotional Disruption As the research evidence shows differences in the way physical and emotional attention is given can produce disallow effects in children. However, there are studiesthat show these ill effects can be reversed. Sigvardsson (1979) studied over 600 follow children in Sweden and at the age of eleven, 26% of them wereclassified as problem children. However in a follow up study, ten years later they were no worse off than theaverage population. So when alternative emotional care is provided, ill effects of separation can be reversed. However, for somechildren disruption of attachment leads to permanentdifficulties. To criticise the validity of the research consider that they are based on case studies. Weakness of case studies arethat they are based on generalisations and they depend onobjectivity of the observers and are prone to observer bias.Failure to Form Attachment Isolated children penury is the lack of having any attachments due to the failure todevelop s uch attachments early in life. GenieThe Czech twinsLocked in a room by her father until she was 13. When discovered she could not stand erect or speak. She was disinterested in people and never recovered socially.Locked away by their step-mother until the age of 7. Were looked after by their sisters and by 14 had normal social and intellectual capabilities. By 20 they had above average intelligence and superior social skills.EvaluationWas unclear whether or not Genie was retard at birth or if she ever formed an attachment with her mother. The Czech twins may have formed attachments to each other to continue for complete lack of care. It is difficult to reach firm conclusions based on only these cases.Failure to Form Attachment Institutional CareMultiple studies show that the effects of institutionalisation within children is acute distress.Longitudinal studies have been conducted to see what long term effects arecaused by institutionalisation.Hodges and Tizard (1989) followed a gr oup of 65 British children from early life to adolescence. Children have been place in an institution from before they were 4 months old. Children have not yet formed attachments at this age. An early study found that 70% of the children were not able to care deeply for anyone.The children were assessed regularly up to the age of 16. Some children remained fleck most were adopted or restored with their original families. The restored children were less likely to develop an attachment with their mothers but the adopted ones were as closely attached to their adopted parents as the control group. However, both groups had problems with compeers and showed signs of disinhibited attachment.These findings suggest that early privation had negative effects on the ability to form relationships even when given technical subsequent emotional care. If failure to develop attachments after the sensitive period occur it can have an irreversible effect on emotional emergence.Failure to Form Atta chment Effects of Privation and Institutionalisation Attachment disorder This has been recognised as a psychiatric condition and has been included in the DSMIV. There are two kinds of attachment disorder, inhibited and disinhibited. Children with an attachment disorder have no PAF, cant interact or relate to others before the age of 5 and have experienced severe neglect or frequent changes in caregivers. Poor parenting skills Harlows monkeys that were raised with surrogate mothers went on to become poor parents. Also, Quinton et al (1984) found similar findings when he compared 50 women who had been raised in institutions. When the women were in their 20s the ex- commit mothers were experiencing extremedifficulties performing as parents. Deprivation dwarfism Physical evidence by Gardner (1972) that institutionalised children are physically underdeveloped, potentially caused by stress hormones. Evaluation In the study of Romanian children, one-third recovered well despite not establ ishing a PAF prior to the sensitive period. Therefore, privation unaccompanied cannot explain negative outcomes. This suggests that damage occurs when there are multiple risk factors (Turner and Lloyd, 1995). Not sure if the children failed to form attachments early in life. Maybe they did and the problems they experienced later were more related to rejection.Impact of mean solar day CareDay Care the form of temporary care not given by the family or someone well known to the child and usually outside of the home.Social breeding the aspect of a childs growth concerned with the cultivation of sociability, where the child learns to relate to others and with the process of socialisation, the child learns social skills appropriate to the society. disconfirming effects on social development Meta-analysis from findings of 88 studies supports Bowlbys research that prolonged separation from the PAF leads to maladjustment. Violata and Russell (1994) concluded that regular mean solar twenty-four hour period care for more than 20 hrs a week had an unmistakable negative effect on socio-emotional development, behaviour and attachment of young children. NICHD in USA conducted a longitudinal study of over 1000 children. Parents were interviewed regarding the effects of regular twenty-four hour period care. The study showedthat the more time a child spent in twenty-four hourslight care, regardless of quality, the adults rated them as more disobedient and aggressive (NICHD, 2003). The children in day care were 3 times more likely to demonstrate behavioural problems than children that were cared by their mothers. Melhuish (2004) found evidence that children with high levels of day care in the first two years of development had elevated risks of developing anti-social behaviours. The Minnesota longitudinal study demonstrated the more securely attached infants are the more popular with peers they become. So therefore, the more insecure an infant, more peer related prob lems could be expected. Belsky and Rovine (1988) assessed attachment in children in day care and found that were more likely to be insecurely attached compared to children at home.Impact of Day Care Positive effects on social developmentGood day care provides plenty of social stimulation, whereas, children subsisting at home may lack social interactions.Brown and Harris (1978) found depressed mothers contributedtheir low moods to being isolated at home with children. demoralise mothers are likely to form insecure attachments with their children which would have a negative effect on their children. Therefore, the independence gained with having a child in day care is a way to prevent this.Clarke-Stewart et al (1994) studied one hundred fifty children and found they were consistently more compliant and independent.The EPPE followed 3000 children in pre-schools and foundincreased sociability (Sylvia et al, 2003).Day care exposes children to their peers thus enabling them to develop s ocialstrategies (negotiate and make friends). Field (1991) found a positive correlation between the amount of time in day care and the number of friends children have once they enter school. Also, those that started day care before 6 months were more sociable than those that started later.Evaluating Research on Day Care Weaknesses of research on day careWhen evaluating the research, one must consider thecircumstances under which one can find positive or negativeoutcomes.Prodromidis (1995) found no correlation between Swedish children in day care and hostility.Freidman from NICHD explains the aggression study actually shows that day care children may be more aggressive than non-day care, but still 83% of children in day care between 10 -30 hours a week show no signs of aggression.Second important finding from the NICHD research is that the mothers sensitivity to the child, higher parental education and income all play a more important role in decreased behavioural problems than the amount of time in day care.Finally, the findings are not causal. The data cannot show that day care caused aggression only that there is a link between the two. Therefore, the data suggests that childrens development is more strongly affected by factors at home than those in day care (Belsky et al, 2007).Evaluating Research on Day Care Weaknesses of Research on Day Care Cannot apply a cause relating to peer relations aswell, only a link. For example, shy and unsociablechildren have mothers that are shy andunsociable, therefore, its possible that moreoutgoing parents/children that go to day care. A lot of research supports the idea that day carealone has no direct effect on development andthat there are other factors involved. Gregg et al(2005) analysed findings from the Children of the90s study and concluded that for the absolute majority ofchildren, maternal employment in their first 3years of life had no adverse effects on behaviour.Evaluating Research on Day Care Mediating Facto rsQuality of CareIndividual DifferencesAs the quality of care decreases it is expected that the attachment type will become poorer. NICHD study (1997) found that low-quality care was associated with poor social development. As parents have different interests in their child, day care round are less invested and therefore provide a different kind of attention. This is reflected in Howes and Hamilton (1992) findingsthat secure attachmentsoccurred in only 50% of day care staff but 70% in mothers.The NICHD study found the more secure a childs attachment level is the better they cope with time spent in day care. However, another study showed that insecure children coped better than secure children (showed more aggressive bx) in day care.Childs age and number of hoursGregg et al (2005) found that negative effects were more likely to be found in children starting day care before 18 months of age. However, the magnitude of these effects was small.Clarke-Stewart et al (1994) found no differ ence in attachment between spending a lot of time in day care (more than 30 hours) with those that spend a little time (less than 10 hours).Implications of Research intoAttachment and Day care Attachment Research Attachment research has shown that when separation occurs, negative effects of this separation can be avoided if substitute emotional care can be provided and colligate to the PAF are made available. This research has changed the way hospitals handle visiting arrangements and the way institutional care is provided. A second implication is the way the adoptions process is managed allowing babies to be adopted earlier strengthening child/parent attachments (Singer, 1985). other implication is the improvement of parenting skills, ie, Circle of Security, which improves infant/mother relationships. Finally, attachment research has been used to improve day care quality focusing on the importance of secondary attachment figures. Day Care Research As research shows, high qualit y care leads to positive outcomes. What is highquality care? crushed child-staff ratios 31 is ideal for sensitive care to be given Minimal staff turnover allows for consistent care and decreases anxiety Sensitive emotional care only 23% of carers demonstrated highly sensitive care, 50% was moderate care and 20% were emotionally detached. Qualified staff qualified managers lead to better social development To ensure high-quality care, reasoned standards are implemented relating to staff ratio to age of the child, minimum qualifications of staff, Ofsted inspections and finally the sure Start programme.
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